The Jefferson Era summary

Chapter 10 (The Jefferson Era) Notes

Section 1: Jefferson Takes Office

A: Election of 1800

The 2 parties in the election of 1800 were the Federalists, led by John Adams, and the Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson
Each party thought the other was endangering the Constitution and the American republic
The D-R thought they were saving the nation from monarchy and oppression
The Federalists thought the country was about to be ruined by radicals (people who take extreme political positions)
The D-R won the election, with Jefferson receiving 73 Electoral College votes and Adams earning 65
But there was a problem. Aaron Burr whom the D-R wanted as vice president also received 73 votes

B: Breaking the Tie

According to the Constitution the House had to choose between Jefferson and Burr
Federalists still held majority in the House, and their votes would decide the winner.
The Federalists were divided on who to elect
Hamilton considered Burr unreliable, and wanted Jefferson even though he did not like him
Over 7 days the House voted 35 times w/out determining a winner
On the 36th ballot Jefferson was elected president
Burr became the VP, and would not forget Hamilton’s insults

C: The Talented Jefferson

Jefferson’s talents went beyond politics
When Washington D.C. was being built Jefferson advised its architects and designers
Jefferson’s book collection later became the core of the Library of Congress
After his election, Jefferson applied his many talents and ideas to the government of the U.S.

D: Jefferson’s Philosophy

Jefferson’s first order of business was to calm the nation’s political quarrels
He tried to unite Americans by promoting a common way of life
He wanted the U.S. to remain a nation of small independent farmers
He hoped that the enormous amount of available land would prevent Americans from crowding into cities
Jefferson was also a very modest man, where he put nothing of his presidency on his tombstone

E: Undoing Federalist Programs

Jefferson thought the federal govt. should have less powers than it did under the Federalists
So he set out to end many Federalist programs
The Alien and Sedition Acts now ended and the prisoners under the acts were released
Many taxes were also ended, including the tax on whiskey
Because of this loss of revenue, Jefferson reduced the number of federal employees and reduced the size of the military
Jefferson used revenues from tariffs and land sales to reduce the amount of money owed by the govt.

F: Marshall and the Judiciary

Judiciary Act of 1801 – Adams had appointed as many federal judges as he could between the election of 1800 and Jefferson’s inauguration in 1801
This meant the new D-R president would face a firmly Federalist judiciary
Adams also appointed John Marshall as the new Chief Justice
Under Marshall the Supreme Court upheld federal authority and strengthened federal courts
One of the most important decision of the Marshall Courts was Marbury v. Madison (1803)

G: Marbury v. Madison

William Marbury was one of Adams last minute appointments
He was justice of the peace for D.C.
Marbury was supposed to be installed in his position by Secretary of State James Madison, but Madison refused to give him the job
Marbury sued and the case went to the Supreme Court, which ruled the law under which Marbury sued was unconstitutional (it contradicted the law of the Constitution)
Although the Court denied Marbury’s claim, it did establish judicial review
Judicial Review states that the Supreme court has final say in interpreting the Constitution
By establishing judicial review, Marshall helped to create a lasting balance among the 3 branches of government

Section 2: The Louisiana Purchase and Expedition

A: The West in 1800

The “West” is known as the area between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River right now
Although the MS River was the western border of the U.S., there was a great deal of activity further west
A vital issue for many settlers was the use of the MS River
Threats to the free navigation of the MS River and the use of the Port of New Orleans brought America to the brink of war

B: Napoleon and New Orleans

The Port of New Orleans was originally claimed by France, but after the French and Indian War, France turned it over the Louisiana Territory and New Orleans to Spain
But in a secret treaty in 1800, Spain returned Louisiana and the Port of New Orleans to France and Napoleon
The developments led to war in 1802 because just before turning over the land back to France, Spain closed New Orleans to American shipping
Westerners called for war against France and Spain
To avoid this war, Jefferson offered to purchase New Orleans from France
The French offer to Jefferson was to sell all of the Louisiana Territory

C: The Louisiana Purchase

Jefferson was thrilled by Napoleon’s offer, but the Constitution said nothing about the Presidents’ right to purchase land.
This troubled Jefferson because he believed in the strict interpretation of the Constitution and a nation/republic of small farmers as well
So on April 30, 1803, the Louisiana Purchase was approved for $15 million (3 cents/acre)

D: Lewis and Clark Explore

Now that the Louisiana Purchase had been made, learning about the territory became even more important
Jefferson chose Meriwether Lewis to lead the expedition
Lewis turned to William Clark to select and oversee a volunteer force, which they called the Corps of Discovery
The Corps of Discovery soon became known as the Lewis and Clark Expedition
Lewis and Clark set out in the summer of 1803
By winter they reached St. Louis. St. Louis soon became “The Gateway to the West”
March 1804, the American flag flew over St. Louis for the first time

E: Up the Missouri River

The instructions from Jefferson was to explore the river and he hoped to find a water route across the United States
Sacagawea – a Shoshone woman whose language skills and knowledge of geography would be great value to Louis and Clark

F: On to the Pacific Ocean

To get around the Great Falls, the explorers had to carry their boats and heavy supplies for 18 miles
Sacagawea and the Shoshone helped then cross the Rocky Mountains, which was their land area
The L&C Expedition brought back a wealth of scientific and geographic information
The learned that an all water route across the U.S. did not exist

G: Pike’s Expedition

In 1806 , an expedition led by Zebulon Pike left St. Lois on a southerly route to find sources of the Arkansas and Red rivers
The Red River formed a boundary between Spanish territory and Louisiana
The group never explored the Red River, but they did bring back valuable descriptions of the Great Plains and the Rio Grande Valley

H: The Effects of Exploration

The first American explorers of the West brought back tales of adventure as well as scientific and geographical information

Section 3: Problems with Foreign Powers

A: Jefferson’s Foreign Policy

Jefferson advised the U.S. to seek friendship with all nations, but to enter into “entangling alliances with none”
The president’s desire to keep the U.S. separated form other nations was doomed to fail
Staying out of the ongoing conflict between France and England would be difficult

B: Problems with France and England

But 1805, the British began to clamp down on U.S. shipping because they did not wasn’t Americans to provide food or supplies to the enemy
Britain also interfered with U.S. trade by impressments, or kidnapping, of American sailors to work on British ships
Because of this, Jefferson faced criticism because of not declaring war

C: Trade as a Weapon

Instead of declaring war, Jefferson asked Congress o pass legislation that would stop all foreign trade
“Peaceable Coercion”
In December Congress passed the Embargo Act of 1807
American ships were no longer allowed to sail foreign ports and it closed American ports to British ships
Jefferson’s policy was a disaster
The embargo hurt Americans more that it did the British because of trade
The embargo was like “cutting one’s throat to cure a nosebleed”

D: Tecumseh and Native American Unity

British interference with shipping and impressments made Americans furious
Many believed that the British were stirring up NA resistance to frontier settlements
Tecumseh vowed to stop the loss of Native American land
He thought they were losing this land because they were separated into many different tribes
Tecumseh’ efforts to unite the tribes failed after the treaty of Fort Wayne
The defeat at the Battle of Tippecanoe was a serious setback for Tecumseh’s movement

E: War Hawks:

After the battle of Tippecanoe, Tecumseh and his warriors found a warm welcome with the British
The Native Americans and the British were now allies
Westerners who called for was were called War Hawks
They wanted British aid to Native Americans stopped, and they wanted the British out of Canada
Congress then declared war on Britain on June 18, 1812

Section 4: The War of 1812

A: The War Begins

Britain didn’t really want a war with the United States because it was already involved on war with France
To try to avoid the war, the British announced that they would no longer interfere with American shipping
But the slow mail prevented the news from reaching the U.S. before the war declaration
The war had 2 main phases

The 1st phase was from 1812-1814, Britain concentrated on its war against France
The 2nd phase began after the defeat of France on April 1814

The U.S. military was weak right now because of the cuts Jefferson made

B: The First Phase of the War

In spite of the small size, the U.S. Navy rose to the challenge
They had the fastest ships
Battle of Thames – this victory put an end to the British threat to the Northwest – and also claimed the life of Tecumseh

C: The Second Phase of the War

After defeating Napoleon in April 1814, Britain turned its full attention to the U.S.
British forces burned the Capitol building and the president’s mansion
Francis Scott key – author of the Star Spangled Banner
Treaty of Ghent – ended the war of 1812

D: The Legacy of War

The treaty showed that the war had no clear winner
The war increased American patriotism, weakened Native American resistance, and U.S. manufacturing grew
Americans no believed that the young nation would survive and prosper

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CHAPTER 7
The Jeffersonian Era

CHAPTER SUMMARY

The period covered by this chapter was marked by the troubles and triumphs of a young country as it began to shape its identity and place as a nation. Having achieved political independence and establishing a structure of government a generation earlier, Americans now embarked on using their freedom and making order in their politics. This search for a national identity touched almost every aspect of American life. Uniquely “American” tastes in music, literature, and art developed. Medical care evolved and became more professionalized. Religious denominations with ties to the colonial era declined as the Second Great Awakening resonated across the country. Technology, unrestrained by mercantile regulations, expanded and began to take on unique American contributions. Throughout it all beckoned a western frontier that proved irresistible to white settlers. The greatest expansion of the American territorial base would soon follow, most notably with the Louisiana Purchase. An American approach to democratic politics also began to take root. At the center of this was Thomas Jefferson. A pragmatic politician who was also a committed idealist, Jefferson deserves to be the symbol of the age that bears his name. But the Jeffersonian era would not be a peaceful one. As England and France persisted in their violations of American neutral rights, Jefferson tried to keep the peace, but at the same time he raised the fears of his political enemies. In the end, the larger enemy was England, and the result was the War of 1812. This war did more than test the American military; it also tested the nation’s ability to survive deep internal divisions that threatened America’s independence as surely as had the forces of Great Britain. In the final analysis, these divisions did not destroy the country or its war effort. The war did not produce a glorious American victory, but the United States did emerge from the conflict with its independence intact and with a heightened sense of American nationalism.

OBJECTIVES

A thorough study of Chapter 7 should enable the student to understand and evaluate:

1.   Thomas Jefferson’s views on education and how his views were put into practice; the role of education in producing a “virtuous and enlightened citizenry”
2.   Evidence of American cultural nationalism as it was expressed in the first two decades of the nineteenth century
3.   The impact of the American Revolution on American religion, as well as the causes and nature of the Second Great Awakening
4.   The changes in, and effects created by, technology in America, including significant improvements in farming, the factory, interchangeable parts, and water and road transportation
5.   Jefferson’s political philosophy and the extent to which he was able to adhere to it as he sought to maintain the United States as a simple agrarian republic
6.   The causes and consequences of the Jeffersonian–Federalist struggle over the federal authority and the judiciary
7.   The factors leading to the French sale of Louisiana to the United States and Jefferson’s reservations concerning the constitutionality of the purchase and the significance of his decision to accept the bargain
8.   The motives for Jefferson’s sponsorship of explorers of the west such as the Lewis and Clark expedition, and the importance of such explorations
9.   Burr’s “conspiracy” and Jefferson’s response to it
10. The diplomacy of presidents Jefferson and Madison and the reasons for their failure to carry out a foreign policy of “peaceable coercion” with England and France
11. The causes of the War of 1812, about which there is much disagreement among historians
12. The problems caused by Tecumseh’s attempts at confederation and by the Spanish presence in Florida as Americans surged westward and southward
13. The state of the nation in 1812 and how President Madison went about waging war against England
14. The connections between the War of 1812 against Great Britain and the various Indian wars that were a part of this story
15. The extent, the nature, and the actions of the domestic opponents of the War of 1812
16. The combined efforts of the American diplomats and the international problems facing Great Britain, which together contributed to a satisfactory American peace settlement

MAIN THEMES

1.   How Americans expressed their cultural independence
2.   The impact of industrialism on the United States and its contribution to technology
3.   Jefferson’s role in shaping the American character and government
4.   How the American people and their political system responded to opportunities for territorial expansion
5.   The internal American divisions that beset the Jeffersonian Era
6.   How American ambitions and attitudes came into conflict with British policies and led to the War of 1812
7.   How Americans were able to “win” the War of 1812 and achieve a reasonable peace afterward
8.   The impact of the War of 1812 on American nationalism

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

1.   What was the “vision of America” shared by Jefferson and his followers? How did American cultural life in the early nineteenth century reflect the republican vision of the nation’s future?
2.   Many Federalists feared Jefferson’s election to the presidency. On what did they base their fears? What did Jefferson do to increase or allay those fears?
3.   Was Jefferson’s election in 1800 a “revolution” in any sense of that term? In what ways did he both alter and accept Federalist beliefs and practices?
4.   Describe the status of medical care in the early 1800s. What had changed and what was similar to care in the colonial era? Describe the changing status of women in medicine.
5.   What were the causes and consequences of the Second Great Awakening? How did this renewed religious enthusiasm mesh with the culture and politics of the Jeffersonian era? What impact did the Awakening have on Native-American life and culture?
7.   What influence did England’s Industrial Revolution have in America? Who were the notable inventors in early America? In what areas of the economy did they tend to have success? How did new technology contribute to changes in transportation? How did new technology alter Jefferson’s vision for America?
8.   Analyze Jefferson’s presidential personality. What public image did he put forth, and how was this image a projection of his ideas for the country? Were there any contradictions between his public image and his beliefs?
9.   Define the conflict between Jefferson and the Federalist-dominated federal court. What strategies did he adopt? How did Chief Justice John Marshall respond? Was this just political posturing, or were genuine issues and differences at stake?
10. Explain the international circumstances that made the Louisiana Purchase possible. Why did Jefferson struggle over the purchase? Analyze the consequences of his decision. What were the goals of the Lewis and Clark expedition? Analyze its impact on nineteenth-century America.
11. How might Aaron Burr’s “conspiracy” have been judged by New England Federalists, by Jeffersonian Republicans, and by western settlers? Explain.
12. What were the causes of the War of 1812? Was it a justifiable war for the United States? Did pre-1812 British policies threaten American independence? Which Americans did not consider the war justified and why?
13. The War of 1812 was generally opposed by New England merchants. Why was this the case given that this war was supposedly fought for freedom of the seas? Why did these people not see a British threat at any time before or during 1812? Put yourself in the place of these merchants and explain their point of view.
14. Why were New England Federalists so opposed to the War of 1812? How did they carry out their protests? Was secession a justifiable alternative at this point? Why were these Federalists unsuccessful in the end? What happened to the Federalists after the War of 1812?
15. What steps did the United States take to avoid what would become the War of 1812? Why did Americans insist on asserting American neutral rights? How did Jefferson and Madison compare as diplomats? Why were these Republicans unable to avoid war in the end?
16. Why were both belligerents seemingly incapable of executing an effective offensive strategy during the War of 1812? Analyze one American victory and explain the reasons for the triumph.
17. The conflict between white Americans and western Indians was certainly more conclusive and probably more significant for the American future than was the war against England. Analyze this statement, discussing the causes and consequences of America’s early “Indian problem.”
18. In what ways did the United States “win” the War of 1812?

MAP EXERCISES

1.   Identify the states in the Union in 1800 and the organized territories.
2.   Locate the Oregon country, British America, and the Spanish possessions.
3.   Note the limits of the Louisiana Purchase and the geographic features associated with it: rivers, lakes, mountain ranges, passes. Locate the route of the Lewis and Clark expedition.
4.   Identify the states in the Union in 1812 and the territories belonging to the nation.
5.   Identify the principal ports along the Atlantic coast and the coast of the Gulf of Mexico.
6.   Note the routes of troop movements, the battle sites and dates, and the extent of the British blockade.

INTERPRETATIVE QUESTIONS BASED ON MAPS AND TEXT

1.   The period covered in this chapter was one of significant technological advancement in America, especially in trade and transportation. How did developments in technology help Americans overcome geographic barriers? Where did these technological developments take place?
2.   What did we buy when we bought Louisiana? What was clearly ours and what claims were challenged by other nations? Why were the boundaries so unclear?
3.   One of the purposes of the Lewis and Clark expedition was to “gather geographical facts.” What did they learn?
4.   What did Zebulon Pike learn about the Louisiana Purchase on his expedition? How did his accounts mislead future settlers?
5.   Why did northern and southern frontiersmen want to expand into Canada and Florida? How did foreign occupation of these areas hinder western expansion in other regions?
6.   Locate the major routes taken by the British when they invaded the United States. What geographic considerations played a part in the choice of where to attack? What made these sites important?
7.   Locate the routes taken by American forces. What geographic considerations played a part in the choice of where to attack? What made these sites important?
8.   Which regions of the country gained the most from the War of 1812? Which felt that they lost as a result of the war? Explain.
9.   Study America’s expansion into Florida. What impact did the War of 1812 have on this movement?

LIBRARY EXERCISES

The following exercises will require students to consult sources found in most college libraries. Using these library resources and the text, they should be able to answer the following:

1. Consult a modern map of Washington, D.C. How is the modern city related to the one shown in this chapter of the text? How did the landscape change to allow the city to grow?
2. After the War of 1812, “the nation’s most pressing economic need . . . was for improvement in its transportation system.” What was done to address this need? Study the text and your library resources, draw the roads and canals that were begun to meet this need, and assess the geographic obstacles that had to be overcome.

ESSAY QUESTIONS

These questions are based on the preceding map exercises. They are designed to test students’ knowledge of the geography of the area discussed in this chapter and of its historical development. Careful reading of the text will help students answer these questions.

1.   Why were some Federalists so upset with the westward movement and with Jefferson’s purchase of Louisiana? Why did both westward expansion and the purchase of Louisiana threaten the Federalists’ political power and the programs they supported? How did the Federalists use the court system to fight back?
2.   What part did the Louisiana Purchase play in the failure of the Burr conspiracy? What groups might have supported Burr if Louisiana had not been part of the United States?
3.   The Louisiana Purchase removed a major point of contention between the United States and a European power, but left many others. Which areas of possible conflict remained, and what were the sources of these potential conflicts?
4.   Why was New England opposed to the War of 1812? How did the expansion of the United States help provoke opposition to the war in New England?
5.   What was Tecumseh’s plan to stop the expansion of the United States? What geographic features worked in his favor? What geographic features worked against him?
6.   What were the motives of the “War Hawks”? How did their goals shape American strategy during the War of 1812?
7.   Weigh American military objectives at the start of the War of 1812.
8.   How did geography determine both British and American military strategy during the War of 1812?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Joyce Appleby, Inheriting the Revolution: The First Generation of Americans (2000)
Frank Bergon, ed., The Journals of Lewis and Clark (1989)
Jeanne Boydston, Home and Work: Housework, Wages, and the Ideology of Labor in the Early Republic (1990)
Thomas C. Cochran, Frontiers of Change: Early Industrialization in America (1981)
Bernard De Voto, The Journals of Lewis and Clark (1953)
Gregory Evans Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815 (1992)
Joseph J. Ellis, After the Revolution: Profiles in Early American Culture (1979)
James Henretta and Gregory Nobles, The Evolution of American Society, 1700-1815, rev. ed. (1987)
Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812 (1989)
Charles Mayfield, The New Nation (1981)
William G. McLoughlin, Revival, Awakenings, and Reform (1978)
Peter S. Onuf, The Language of American Nationhood (2000)
Nathan Rosenberg, Technology and American Economic Growth (1972)
Robert W. Tucker and David C. Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (1990)

For Internet resources, practice questions, references to additional books and films, and more, see this book’s Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/unfinishednation5.

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The Jefferson Era summary

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The Jefferson Era summary

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