AP Human Geography Pre-Term Assignment

Prologue

• Summarize Yali’s Question. This requires mentioning race, intelligence, and the development of technology.

 

Yali asks Diamond about the contrasting life of the New Guineans and the European whites. Essentially, Yali is really asking why one’s race seems to have an affect upon the development of that group’s society. Yali mentions “cargo” in his question. By this he means, why did his race have fewer luxuries (or material goods the whites had), while European whites had more luxuries? Yali wonders why his race developed differently. Did their rate of intelligence have anything to do, or contribute to the development of new things, new “cargo”, or new technology? Diamond rephrases this question as, “Why did human development proceed at such different rates on different continents?”

• Summarize the three main objections to answering Yali’s question.

 

First Objection: If the answer to Yali’s question explains how some people dominated over others, than doesn’t this justify that domination is fine?

Second Objection: Doesn’t automatically answering Yali’s question involve being Eurocentric, or extremely focused on European history and culture? Isn’t the prominence of European whites fading anyways?

Third Objection: Doesn’t Yali’s question imply that civilization is good and that other new types of society should replace the ways of the past?

• What is meant by a “eurocentric” approach to history?

 

A Eurocentric approach to history is almost like a biased, glorification of western Europeans. A Eurocentric approach is a tendency to be centered on Europeans and interpreting the world in western and European ways.

• Summarize Diamond’s response to the idea that Europeans may perhaps be more innately intelligent that New Guineans. Use his major points to support your summary.

 

Diamond believes that one’s environment affects his or her intelligence. New Guineans will of course be more inept in tasks that Europeans have performed all their life. Diamond explains that this concept can be reversed as well: Europeans will be inept at tasks that New Guineans have been doing all their lives, such as following a jungle trail or erecting a shelter. In fact, Diamond completely changes the idea that Europeans are more innately intelligent than New Guineans, giving two major points. First, intelligence is needed to survive in the New Guineans wilderness. Secondly, the European lifestyle involves passive entertainment. New Guineans have no opportunities for passive entertainment and in the time the European children are being ‘entertained’, New Guinean’s are actively moving and thinking—which requires more brain function.

• Give an example of “passive entertainment.” Explain why we seem to have a better opportunity to experience this type of entertainment in America and its possible effect on our ability to think critically.

 

Passive entertainment can be defined by television, radio, movies, etc. Diamond explains in his book that due to the environment of the New Guineans, they have virtually no such opportunities. However, he believes that this is an advantage to the New Guineans. Studies show that stimulation is vital to the development of a child. In the average American household, the television is on for about 7 hours a day. New Guinean children use this time actively doing something, which stimulates their brain—or ability to think critically. Therefore, according to studies, New Guineans are superior in escaping the developmental disadvantages that most children in industrial societies do not grow up in.

• Explain the theory of how cold European weather may have affected the mental development of Europeans.

 

This theory states that living in a colder, harsher climate requires one to be more technologically inventive to survive, wheras living in a tropical requirement requires less thinking. The theory basically states that the cold European weather made the Europeans smarter because they had to create ways to survive the weather.

• Explain how the theory of irrigation development may have affected the mental development of river civilizations.

 

This theory states that irrigation led to the creation of centralized government systems, meaning that highly productive agricultural societies depended on large-scale irrigation systems, which in turn required centralized governments. Since an irrigation system is considered complex, government needed to come into affect as well.

• Summarize Diamond’s thesis. This requires you to first understand Yali’s question, and outline how Diamond proposes to answer this question.

 

At the start of the book Yali asks Diamond why the Europeans have been the ones with all the “cargo”, or all the power in the world, rather than any other group of people. Diamond thesis is his thought process derived from Yali’s question: “History followed different courses for different peoples because of differences among peoples’ environments, not because of biological differences among peoples themselves.” What Diamond means by this is that the immediate assumption that goes through one’s mind, requires them to be Eurocentric—believing that Europeans were better than the other races of the world, which is why they have advanced so far. Instead, Diamond wants the reader to look at geographical factors.  Diamond will argue that the “accidents” of history is the reason the world is the way it is today.
Up To The Starting Line

• What is significant about 13,000 years ago or 11,000 B.C.E.

This date corresponds to the beginning of village life in a few parts of the world—the first people to come into the Americas (which is undisputed), the end of the Pleistocene Era and the last Ice Age, and the start of the Recent Era. 11,000 B.C.E.is near the time when everything ‘started.’ For example, plant and animal domestication began within a few thousand years of that date in at least one part of the world. 11,000 B.C.E is also a suitable starting point from which to compare the historical developments around the world and a start to answer Yali’s question.

•  What stage in human development does Diamond characterize as the Great Leap Forward?

 

Diamond characterizes the Great Leap Forward to have occurred sometime around 50,000 years ago. Some definite signs of this include standardized stone tools and the first preserved jewelry. The Great Leap Forward signifies a “leap” when humans became more modern, more intellectual, and behaviorally more similar to the ‘modern human.’

•  What are the major human achievements that characterize this Great Leap Forward?

 

Some of these achievements include standardized stone tools, the first preserved jewelry, more complex weapons, artwork, etc.

• What technological advancement (and give the date) was necessary for the colonization of New Guinea and Australia?

 

Watercraft was necessary for the colonization of New Guinea and Australia about 30,000 to 40,000 years ago.

• What theory does Diamond propose for the disappearance of mega-fauna in Australia/New Guinea?

 

Diamond argues that the disappearance of the mega-fauna in Australia/New Guinea was due to human action. The animals of Australia and New Guinea had never been confronted with humans before, therefore they had never evolved with humans. However, slowly humans had evolved with animals in Africa and Eurasia, so their hunting skills had improved, as the animals had coevolved with the humans—becoming less vulnerable to their attacks. Animals in the mega-fauna of Australia and New Guinea were unprepared and were successfully hunted off by the humans.

• What mega-fauna existed in North America prior to 11,000 B.C.E.

 

About 15,000 years ago the Americas had been filled with big mammals and looked much like Africa’s Serengeti Plains do today. There were herds of elephants, horses, lions, cheetahs, camels, giant ground sloths, etc. However, most of these large mammals became extinct just like what happened in Australia/New Guinea.
A Natural Experiment of History

• What about the natural environment of the Chatham Islands caused the Moriori people to develop dramatically different from their Maori conquerors of the same ancestral heritage?

The Chatham Islands had a cold climate, therefore the Moriori people that inhabited that area had to resort to being hunter gatherers. Because they could not produce crop surpluses, they could not support and feed nonhunting craft specialists, armies, bureaucrats, and chiefs. Even the prey that they hunted could be captured either by hand or simply by a club. Also the relatively small population of the Chatham Islands required the hunter-gatherers to get along peacefully, renouncing wars. This resulted in a small, unwarlike population with simple technology and weapons, and without strong leadership and organization. On the contrary, the Maori developed in a warmer part of New Zealand, suitable for Polynesian agriculture. With crop surpluses, the Maori fed craft specialist, chiefs, and part-time soldiers—creating a more stabilized and civilized environment.

• What are the three staple domesticated animals of the Polynesians?

 

The pig, the chicken, and the dog

• What are the main causes of low human population density in many Polynesian islands?

 

The variation of human population densities on many Polynesian islands varied depending on the factors of the environments and their environments. For example, human population densities were lowest on the islands with poor soil and limited fresh water. Population densities were also low on temperate New Zealand, which was too cool for some Polynesian cops.

• What man-made constructions allowed for increased human population density in islands such as Hawaii?

An organized government allowed for increased human population density in islands such as Hawaii. Political complexity was greatest in islands such as Hawaii. Diamond says that higher population densities create room for construction projects, such as irrigation agriculture. He argues that the presence of an organized, complex government makes it possible for the rulers of the government to make the ‘citizens’ take part in projects such as irrigation systems.

Collision at Cajamarca

• If you had witnessed Cajamarca prior to the overthrow of Atahuallpa, explain why you may not have believed that Pizarro’s overthrow of the Incas was possible.

 

I would have believed that Pizarro’s overthrow would have been impossible because Pizarro was vastly outnumbered. Pizarro had an army of 168 Spaniard versus Atahuallpa who had an army of 80,000.

• Explain the role of technology in the overthrow of the Inca.

 

Technology played a major role in the defeat of the Incans. Although guns did play a role, they did not play a huge role. What were far more important was the Spaniards’ steal swords, lances, daggers, and sharp weapons which completely overpowered the thinly armored Indians. The Indians just had blunt clubs, which was rarely successful in killing the Spaniards. Also, the Spaniards had maritime technology which helped take them to South America. Atahuallpa did not have maritime technology. So, when the Pizarro’s men reached using maritime technology they now had powerful weapons to back them up as well.

• Explain the role of religion in the overthrow of the Inca.

 

The Spaniards were so religious that they were determined to defeat the Incas and thought of themselves as superior. Diamond shows in the book that this played a role because it caused the Spanish to fight harder than they could have otherwise done so.

• Explain the role of disease in the overthrow of the Inca.

 

Shortly before the arrival of Pizarro, the smallpox epidemic had just killed the Inca emperor and most of his court. Then, there was a civil war between Atahuallpa and his brother Huascar regarding who should be emperor next. If it had not been for the epidemic the Spaniards would have faced a united empire.

• Explain the role of literacy and government organization in the overthrow of the Inca.

 

Literacy: Atahuallpa had very little information about the Spaniards, their military power, and their intent. He could only get his information by word of mouth, due to the fact that the Incans did not have any form of writing. When Atahuallpa sent his men to go check on the Spaniards, his men did not have any prior knowledge about the Spaniards so they assumed that they were disorganized. Atahuallpa remained ignorant about the Spaniard’s conquests due to being illiterate.

Government Organization: In this case, Pizarro’s centralized government turned out to be in his favor, while Atahuallpa’s government did not. Pizarro’s centralized government enabled Spain to finance, build, staff, and equip ships. Since Atahuallpa was an absolute monarch, his capture led to the instant destruction of the Incan government. 

Farmer Power

• Using the chart on 87, explain which of the five proximate factors is the most important product on an agricultural society.

 

The most important product of an agricultural society is epidemic diseases. Epidemic diseases evolve in areas with many wild plant and animal species suitable for domestication. The resulting crops and livestock feed human populations in which epidemics could maintain themselves. Also, diseases evolve from germs of the domesticated animals themselves.

• Explain how an agricultural society naturally provides the opportunity to develop proximate factors.

 

Agricultural societies allow for a greater population density, than hunter-gatherer societies. With a greater population of people, not everyone has to farm; therefore people can ‘specialize’ in other areas such as political organization. Also, people can focus on gun, steels, and ships other than just farming.

• List all of the economic products and services provided by the following agriculture and livestock:
• Cotton b. Flax c. Hemp—source of linen, fiber products, could be used for clothing

d. Camel e. Horse f. Donkey—used for transporting goods, rather than transporting them on the backs of humans, horses were hitches on wagons
g. Cow—source of leather, hitched on wagons
h. Water Buffalo- can plow land, alsong with the horse, cow, and Bali cattle
i. Goat—livestock, means of transport

• How does animal domestication affect plant (corn) production (Minimum 2)

Domesticating animals affects crop production because one, you could use animal manure as a major source for crop fertilization. Second, you could use the domesticated animals as sources of labor—to plow and till land.

• In what ways do animals affect military success?

 

Horses (and camels) were used as the ‘main assault vehicle’ and as means of transportation. Also, animals were used to spread diseases. Many diseases such as smallpox came from animals. When these animals were brought into places in which the inhabitants were ‘foreign’ to the animals; the animals killed many people. This made it easier to conquer places. Animals created an enormous military advantage, especially over those without them.

• Name the date and the invention that make horses a viable military option.

 

The invention of the horse-drawn battle chariots invented around 1800 B.C. allowed horses to pull wagons and chariots. In 1674 B.C., horses enabled the Hyksos to conquer Egypt.
            History’s Haves and Have Nots

• List the three areas of the world that are the earliest “haves”

Southwest Asia, China, Mesoamerica

• List the three places of the world that are the later “haves”

 

Western Europe, Indus Valley, Europe

• List the three areas of the world that borrowed the stuff of the “haves” earliest.

 

Western Europe, Indus Valley, Egypt

• Make a statement about the relative location in approximation to each other of the haves in #30 to the borrowers in #32.

 

The haves in number 30 are very spread apart, while the borrowers in number 32 are clustered together appearing to form a circle around the Fertile Crescent.

To Farm or Not to Farm

• What are the four major factors that allowed farmers to dominate hunters and gatherers?
• Decline in the availability of wild foods—the lifestyle of hunter gatherers had become increasingly less rewarding because wild foods were becoming less abundant and disappearing
• Increased availability of domesticable wild plants made steps leading to plant domestication more rewarding
• More and more technology was being created for collecting, processing, and storing wild foods—which created more of a reason to farm
• The link between the rise in human population density and the rise in food production made farming necessary. As populations increased, farming was needed to continue to support the growing populations

How to Make an Almond

• Use an example that explains how the tastier plants we have today went through the process of natural selection.

Most wild almond seeds have a very bitter taste due to the fact that they contain an intensely bitter and even poisonous chemical. Over time farmers realized that some almonds did not contain the bitter taste. This process ‘selected’ the better tasting almonds and eventually made them into a feasible crop.

• Give five examples of different characteristics a plant could possess to allow it to be naturally selected.

 

• size
• bitterness
• fleshiness
• oiliness
• fiber length

• How did the industrial revolution affect the moth population in England?

 

The Industrial Revolution changed the environment, making it dirtier. More moths co-evolved with the environment so they could blend in with the dark, dirty environment. Dark moths were more likely to escape their predators than white moths were.

• How and where were the fruit trees we have today such as cherries and apples developed for agriculture?

 

These were the last trees to be domesticated around classical times. The technique, called grafting was developed in China.

• Why were almond trees domesticated for consumption but oak trees were not?

 

The bitterness in an oak tree is a polygenic trait—meaning it is controlled by more than one gene. The bitterness for almonds is only controlled by one gene. The chances of planting almond tree and getting more sweet almonds is much more likely than planting an oak tree and getting sweet almonds. Almond trees were domesticated for consumption because their success rate was higher.

Apples or Indians

• What are the major advantages of the Fertile Crescent that predispose the region to early the agricultural development?
• The Fertile Crescent lies within a zone of Mediterranean climate—mild, wet winters and long, hot, dry summers
• The wild ancestors of many Fertile Crescent crops were already abundant and highly productive
• Many of the Fertile Crescent flora include hermaphroditic plants—or ‘selfers’: these plants can be cross-pollinated, but normally just pollinate themselves

• What is the major key to plant success regarding pollination and how did this affect the Fertile Crescent?

 

Many of the Fertile Crescent flora included a large percentage of hermaphroditic plants. These plants can pollinate themselves, and if they pollinate the good mutations then the crop will be very successful.

• Why are barley and emmer wheat the two best grasses to domesticate?

 

Emmer wheat has the biggest seeds; barley wheat has the second biggest seeds. They are both pretty abundant crops. Barley has the genetic ability and morphology to evolve quickly, and emmer wheat can be gathered very efficiently.

• What are the three major limiting factors that encourage the hunter-gatherer lifestyle on New Guinea to continue long after other areas have turned to agriculture?

 

• No cereal crops were domesticated in New Guinea
• The New Guinea fauna included no domesticable large mammal species whatsoever
• New Guinea’s available root crops were limiting for calories as well as for proteins
• Based upon the preceding chapter, explain why Diamond could be characterized as a cultural or an environmental historian. (Which do you think he see as the driving force in history?)

Diamond should be classified as an environmental historian. Continuously, Diamond looks at the tendency of society to evolve due to environmental changes. He also looks at how environmental factors influence what happens in the environment. Referring to Chapter 7, based on the seeds and types of plants available at that time, Diamond specifically targeted which plants ended up being domesticated as a result of those factors.

Zebras and Unhappy Marriages

• Why did Africans domesticate Eurasian animals when they had a food source equivalent to a modern zoo in their backyard? In other words, what’s up with those Zebras?

The major reason that Diamond proposes for this is that although Africa may have had so many animals to choose from (51 animals); they were not ‘candidates of domestication.’ Zebras are very dangerous and cannot be lassoed. They are very hard to domesticate and attempts to domesticate them are rarely successful.

• You need to make a cute copy of page 167. Use markers and have fun. You will refer to it for the rest of the year. This will become vitally essential to you exactly one year from now.

 

See Next Page

• Explain the many different characteristics of the Anna Karenina principle.

 

The Anna Karenina principal basically states that if one of more of the basic factors of relationship falls then the relationship will fall apart. In the process of domesticating animals, the characteristics of a ‘good’ animal include:

• Diet- the animal shouldn’t eat too much food
• Growth Rate- the animal should grow quickly
• Captive Breeding- the animal must be able to breed even in captivity
• Disposition- should not be able to kill humans
• Panic- animal should not get nervous
• Social Structure- animal should live in groups

Spacious Sky’s and Tilted Axes

• Explain the advantage of an east-west continental axis.

With an east-west continental axis, crops can be spread very easily. Places located on an east-west axis have similar climates. With a north-south axis, the climate would change a lot. An example of an east-west axis would be Eurasia—since it has an east-west axis, crops were spread across very easily.

• How does the north-south axis prevent diffusion of crops.

 

In an east-west axis, similar latitudes have similar climates. A north-south axis has different latitudes, therefore different climates. A north-south axis would prevent a diffusion of crops because crops would not be able to spread very easily, due to climate changes.

Lethal Gift of Livestock

• What evolutionary benefit do microbes derive from making humans sick in bizarre ways such as genital sores or diarrhea?

 

As the microbes someone sick, they are constantly finding ways to reproduce, especially inside a new host. For example, if you get diarrhea from a microbe, the microbe will be passed out of your body often, therefore developing the ability to find a new host.

• Give an example how the evolutionary process of natural selection has resulted in immunity to certain diseases.

 

When a group of people get sick from a disease, some will die and some will not. Those who do not die develop a resistance to the disease, which they are likely to pass on to the next generation.

• What are the four characteristics of “epidemic” diseases that cause them to die out and not reappear for a long period of time?

 

• Spread quickly and efficiently
• “acute illnesses”- within a short time
• The ones that recover from the disease develop antibodies that leave them immune against a reappearance of the disease for a long time
• The diseases tend to only affect humans

• Why does it make sense that slow developing/spreading diseases such as leprosy and polio, must be the oldest diseases in the history of mankind?

 

This makes sense because we have evolved to live with the diseases. The disease may affect one generation, but since that generation recovered, it may not reappear for some time. So leprosy and polio have always been there, but they have not appeared in every generation, because they have evolved with humans.

• What aspects of farming civilizations make them more adept at sustaining the development of infectious crowd diseases?

 

• Dense populations
• The microbes can be spread in feces—which are sometimes used as fertilizer
• Farming leads to trade, which means more interactions, hence more contact with the disease

• Explain why the exchange of diseased from the old world (Europe) and the new world (America) was so one-sided (America got killed off, not Europe). In doing so, make sure to explain exactly what is a “social” animal.

 

The Old World had domesticated animals, which carried germs that eventually killed off the people of the New World. These animals included pigs, horses, cows, etc., which are social animals.

Blueprints and Borrowed Letters

• What is the importance of a writing system to a civilization?

A civilization with writing makes it possible to transmit knowledge accurately. With writing information can be stored and preserved with great detail. Writing is essentially a branch of knowledge, and knowledge is power.

• How does the development of a writing system fit into the larger thesis of Guns, Germs, and Steel? In other words, how did writing systems develop differently in Eurasia than other continents?

 

Diamond argues that in Eurasian countries, writing was very widespread. The introduction of writing allowed societies to advance in other aspects such as: political organization, technology, etc. This fits in with the thesis because writing gave power and allowed Eurasian countries to dominate other countries. Diamond shows us that writing was a much needed technology in order to be successful and the early-adoption of writing in Eurasian societies helped them advance ahead and take over other countries.

 

Necessity’s Mother

• How does Edison’s phonograph help disprove the theory of necessity as the mother of invention?

 

Diamond argues that necessity is not the mother of invention, rather invention is the mother of necessity. Something does not get invented for a need, rather when it is invented, people find ways to use it. Edison’s invention of the phonograph was not used for what Edison intended it to be used for. If necessity really were the mother of invention, then Edison would have created the invention for a specific need and people wouldn’t have decided the ‘need’ for it.

• If you believe in Diamond’s theory, which is more important: the ability to invent, or the ability to borrow inventions and find new uses?

 

The ability to borrow inventions and find new uses—most innovations were spread by borrowing; there was never one inventor that sparked off everything. All inventors had predecessors and successor. Diamond believes that it is much more likely and possible to borrow many types of technologies from different places than to start from scratch.

• Once again we visit Diamond’s thesis. How does geography affect the ability to adapt and refine inventions for use?

 

• if a society is near a society that innovates then it can adapt the society’s innovations
• isolated societies do not really need technology

A society’s location matters most. Those who are near to other countries will get the technology and innovations.

From Egalitarianism to Kleptocracy

• Discuss the differences between Band, Tribe Chiefdom and State.

 

• Bands: tiniest societies, 5-80 people, most or all are close relatives, no permanent single base of residence, no economic specialization, egalitarian, lack police force, bureaucracy, and taxes
• Tribes- larger containing 100s of people, subordinated to national states, egalitarian, lack police force, bureaucracy, and taxes, slight economic specialization
• Chiefdoms- several thousands, to several tens of thousands of people, several conflicts, there was a chief of hereditary right, chief had all power
• States- continue to increase in size, early states had a hereditary leader, economic redistribution (taxes), laws, judiciary, police
• Besides maintaining the status quo of Kleptocracy, how else does religion in a practical sense, serve society

• Shared ideology or religion helps solve the problem of how unrelated individuals are to live together without killing each other
• Gives people a motive for sacrificing their lives on behalf of others

 

• What is the relationship between food productions and complex societies- does one lead to the other?

No, food production and societal complexity stimulate each other. Population growth leads to societal complexity, while societal complexity leads to intensified food production.

• Why do societies merge?

 

There are two simple reasons societies merge:
One, they are conquered or second, they merge to protect themselves from invaders. Diamond argues that societies never merge voluntarily, in fact they merge involuntarily.